Research Methods: Grounded Theory

Cutting to the Methodological Chase on Grounded Theory As a Methodoloogy

  

1)  Grounded theory:

--begins with data, not a formal hypothesis, or an initial assumption

--works toward theory (overarching concepts, models, formal theory)---you collect/create data (yes, plural) that might add up to theorizing

--works toward insights, hypotheses, questions which call for more data

--deals with social phenomena, those experiences, occurrences that qualitative researchers are interested in

--working method or method of data analysis is called constant comparison,  that is, it is systematic, purposeful

            --this means searching for similarities (themes) and differences

--from qualitative data gained from interviews, observed actions and events, documents

--when similarities and differences are discovered among the data, they are coded (codes can be original or prompted by seemingly related theory or even from prior studies working with similar questions and data); the codes become categories which the researcher labels; then the various data are placed within these categories

--researcher goes to the literature (research and theorizing that have already been established—out there in the journals, documents, etc.); and goes back in an iterative process through the data collected, to double check on  and sharpen the categorization of the data (are the initial codes that have been established as accurate as possible? Should they be modified or additional codes/categories developed?)

--after the data have been exhaustively reviewed and codes checked and re-checked, theories or overarching concepts are formed

2) Grounded theorists work with theoretical sampling or purposive sampling, wherein research participants or cases are chosen, not because they are necessarily representative of what you are researching, but because they are relevant to the phenomenon you are investigating. What these research participants have experienced or what they have to say and/or what apparently goes on in a given organization, school, etc. promises (already) to provide you with the kinds of information/insights that you need in investigation. [This research site and the data that it might offer have a good chance of providing you with the insights/understandings that you are researching.] You might choose 2 cases, for example, of what you think (theoretically or though prior acquaintance) will provide you with similar qualities or you might intentionally choose contrasting cases.

--make certain that you define carefully why you chose the sample (the case, participants, organizations, etc.). This holds for all samples. Why did you choose to do your research on this sample--organizations, students, families, events, etc.

3) theoretical saturation: as you continue to code and comb through your data, back and forth, after a while you will not find anything new or revealing. When this happens you have likely done enough analysis. You have reached theoretical saturation.  

In the big picture in qualitative research, we are all working from the ground up.

--I have a question.

--I seek answers via data collection.

--I ask: So what does this data add up to in the end? [understanding, concepts, theories that need more investigation, questions] 

Reflection

I thought that it was very interesting to hear from three different students with similar (but not the same) research interests and academic pursuits rather than from one source. I am interested in the hands-on nature of participatory action research (PAR) and think that if I were to expand my work with Fort Hayes into more of a look at the impact of the program itself on the students that it would be very helpful for me. I was thrilled to get some personal experience feedback from Kate, Melissa, and Ruth! It is always nice to hear testimonials that help reinforce that even though you don’t have a clue about what you’re doing, you’re not necessarily doing it wrong. And that you’re not alone! Their tips and explanations were really helpful in clarifying some questions I had regarding the basics of methodological approaches and in addressing challenges that I might expect to face.

Research Methods: Narrative Inquiry

Narrative inquiry or narrative analysis emerged as a discipline from within the broader field of qualitative research in the early 20th century. Narrative inquiry uses field texts, such as stories, autobiography, journals, field notes, letters, conversations, interviews, family stories, photos (and other artifacts), and life experience, as the units of analysis to research and understand the way people create meaning in their lives as narratives.

1. Develop a research question

• A Qualitative study seeks to learn why or how, so the writer’s research must be directed at determining the why and how of the research topic. Therefore, when crafting a Research Question for a Qualitative study, the writer will need to ask a why or how question about the topic.

• The raw data tend to be interview transcriptions, but can also be the result of field notes compiled during participant observation or from other forms of data collection that can be used to produce a narrative.

• According to Polkinghorne, the goal of organizing data is to home in on the research question and separate irrelevant or redundant information from that which will be eventually analyzed, sometimes referred to as "narrative smoothing."

• Some approaches to organizing data are as follows:

(When choosing a method of organization, one should choose the approach best suited to the research question and the goal of the project. For instance, Gee's method of organization would be best if studying the role language plays in narrative construction whereas Labov's method would more ideal for examining a certain event and its effect on an individual's experiences)

• Labov's: Thematic organization or Synchronic Organization.

This method is considered useful for understanding major events in the narrative and the effect those events have on the individual constructing the narrative. The approach utilizes an "evaluation model" that organizes the data into an abstract (What was this about?), an orientation (Who? What? When? Where?), a complication (Then what happened?), an evaluation (So what?), a result (What finally happened?), and a coda (the finished narrative). Said narrative elements may not occur in a constant order; multiple or reoccurring elements may exist within a single narrative.

• Polkinghorne's: Chronological Organization or Diachronic Organization also related to the sociology of stories approach that focuses on the contexts in which narratives are constructed. This approach attends to the "embodied nature" of the person telling the narrative, the context from which the narrative is created, the relationships between the narrative teller and others within the narrative, historical continuity, and the chronological organization of events. A story with a clear beginning, middle, and end is constructed from the narrative data. Polkinghorne makes the distinction between narrative analysis and analysis of narratives. Narrative analysis utilizes "narrative reasoning" by shaping data in a narrative form and doing an in-depth analysis of each narrative on its own, whereas analysis of narratives utilizes paradigmatic reasoning and analyzes themes across data that take the form of narratives.

• Bruner's functional approach focuses on what roles narratives serve for different individuals. In this approach, narratives are viewed as the way in which individuals construct and make sense of reality as well as the ways in which meanings are created and shared. This is considered a functional approach to narrative analysis because the emphasis of the analysis is focused on the work that the narrative serves in helping individual's make sense of their lives, particularly through shaping random and chaotic events into a coherent narrative that makes the events easier to handle by giving them meaning. The focus of this form of analysis is on the interpretations of events related in the narratives by the individual telling the story.

• Gee's approach of structural analysis focuses on the ways in which the narrative is conveyed by the speaker with particular emphasis given to the interaction between speaker and listener. In this form of analysis, the language that the speaker uses, the pauses in speech, discourse markers, and other similar structural aspects of speech are the focus. In this approach, the narrative is divided into stanzas and each stanza is analyzed by itself and also in the way in which it connects to the other pieces of the narrative.

• There are a multitude of ways of organizing narrative data that fall under narrative analysis; different types of research questions lend themselves to different approaches. Regardless of the approach, qualitative researchers organize their data into groups based on various common traits.

• Some paradigms/theories that can be used to interpret data:

Paradigm or theory	Criteria	Form of theory	Type of narration
Positivist/postpositivist	Internal, external validity	Logical-deductive grounded	Scientific report
Constructivist	Trustworthiness, credibility, transferability, confirmability	Substantive	Interpretive case studies, ethnographic fiction
Feminist	Afrocentric, lived experience, dialogue, caring, accountability, race, class, gender, reflexivity, praxis, emotion, concrete grounding	Critical, standpoint	Essays, stories, experimental writing
Ethnic	Afrocentric, lived experience, dialogue, caring, accountability, race, class, gender	Standpoint, critical, historical	Essays, fables, dramas
Marxism	Emancipatory theory, falsifiability dialogical, race, class, gender	Critical, historical, economic	Historical, economic, sociocultural analyses
Cultural studies	Cultural practices, praxis, social texts, subjectivities	Social criticism	Cultural theory as criticism
Queer theory	Reflexivity, deconstruction	Social criticism, historical analysis	Theory as criticism, autobiography

• While interpreting qualitative data, researchers suggest looking for patterns, themes, and regularities as well as contrasts, paradoxes, and irregularities.

(The research question may have to change at this stage if the data does not offer insight to the inquiry)

• The interpretation is seen in some approaches as co-created by not only the interviewer but also with help from the interviewee, as the researcher uses the interpretation given by the interviewee while also constructing their own meaning from the narrative.

With these approaches, the researcher should draw upon their own knowledge and the research to label the narrative.

• According to some qualitative researchers, the goal of data interpretation is to facilitate the interviewee's experience of the story through a narrative form.
• Narrative forms are produced by constructing a coherent story from the data and looking at the data from the perspective of one's research question.

2. Select or produce raw data

3. Organize data

4. Interpret data

Research Methods: Phenomenology

Who? Edmund Husserl
What? Study of phenomena; "the philosophical study of the structures of subjective experience and consciousness"
Where? Primarily started in Europe then spread to the United States
When? 1917 --> 1930s Europe
Why? Describe/explain lived experiences to understand better

Ethnography Clip

Colloquium: Perspectives on Collaborative Research

Perspectives on Collaborative Research                                                                                              
Kate Collins, Melissa Crum, & Ruth Smith

PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH (PAR)
- important to be inclusive
- results should, ideally, benefit the participants
- participants should have some manner of influence on the study and questions in the first place

1) Prioritizes context-specific dialogue - a collective commitment to investigate n issue or problem. A desire to engage in self- and collective-reflection to gain clarity about the issues under investigation
2)  Social justice-oriented - a joint decision to engage in individual and/or collective action that leads to a useful solution that benefits the people involved; how can the participants be transformed or emancipated in some way?
3) Collaboration - building of alliances between researchers and participants in the planning, implementation, and dissemination of the research process; make sure that the participants are advocating what they are hoping to achieve and that the researcher is adding to the conversation and facilitating the project

Examples: 
Citizen Artist Dine & Dialogue Initiative (Kate Collins) - students from across the arts designed an arts collaboration that is centered on art making that focuses on dialogue and dialogic exchange, particularly on cross-cultural concerns
Mosaic Homeschool Education Network (Melissa Crum) - group of families that were dissatisfied with the quality of education their children were receiving in the public school system; wanted an educational environment that was more strongly based in the arts. Primarily low-income, African American families (vs. a more traditional conservative, upper-class Caucasian community of homeschoolers). Montessori-style teaching with students coming from multiple levels in one environment with an Afro-cultural foundation
Dumarka Soomaaliyeed Voices Unveiled (Ruth Smith) - collaboration with the Somali Women and Children's Alliance; started with disbanding misconceptions of who Somali women are. "Community through the eyes of young Somali women." Photography-based, all-female project facilitated by Ruth but largely executed, organized, and directed by the Somali women involved in the project

Kate's Challenges
What kinds of questions should one be asking when entering into a new partnership?
In a classroom setting, how does one employ participant observation when one is actively engaging with students the whole time?
What challenges might one face in relation to seeking equity and balance when working with disparate groups?

Autoethnography (reflective) vs. Field Notes (exact)

*can rent a recorder from Central Classroom for the entire year for free!!

Melissa's Challenges
How can art education be used as a tool for communities to transform and/or enhance their material and mental livelihoods in a noticeable and relevant way?
- Most art projects tend to be very short-lived; what kind of tools and materials are lasting? 
"If you give a man a fish, he will eat for one day. If you teach a man to fish, he will never be hungry."

Ruth's Challenges
How do I represent and re-present participants and their experiences to different audiences?
Where is the line between participatory processes and PAR? Is it even important to distinguish? How does it effect methods and methodology?

Using the word "research" with participants may be intimidating and off-putting; rather, encourage that they are part of the education process

Research Methods: Research Triangle